Despite having these resources, their inclusion in aquafeed formulation was limited due to the antinutritional activities of phytate.Building on these two principles, feed formulas can be further refined by considering the effect of processing on quality of raw materials, functionality of ingredients, nutrient requirements at different life stages, dynamics of production systems (e.g., ponds, cage, recirculating aquaculture systems), and market expectations.The quality and efficiency of feed formulas depend arguably more on the extent and accuracy of our knowledge about these factors than formulation methods.Feed formulation evolved from rudimentary, yet still applied, hand calculation methods using crude nutrient content of raw materials to more advanced computer programs incorporating nutrient availability values of numerous ingredients and additives ( Lall, 1991; Hardy and Barrows, 2002; Dryden, 2008 ).
The first fish feeds were formulated in the early 1900s on the basis of proximate composition, availability, cost, and palatability of raw materials, mostly beef heart, beef and pig liver, meat meal, and fishmeal at the time ( Embody, 1918 ). In recent years, the records of feedstuffs and list of nutrients have increased considerably. For practical reasons, ingredient contents are often expressed in percentage (as-fed or dry matter) of commercial feed formulas, rather than units required per metabolic body weight per day or other approaches encountered in the scientific literature. It is also crucial to work on a uniform basis (as-fed or dry matter) when expressing the composition of ingredients to minimize the gap between predicted and observed feed composition. Feed Formulation Software For Poultry Trial Livestock SpeciesIn the nineteenth century, common production goals were related to weight gain, manure and milk production, or muscle tissue reparation of terrestrial livestock species ( Wolff, 1895; Dumas et al., 2008 ). Information from ingredient composition tables served to provide the most nutritious blends possible in order to achieve these objectives. ![]() Production goals considered in feed formulations continue to regard weight gain and egg quality as high priorities, but other outcomes of interest have emerged, such as health benefits and sustainability of aquaculture products ( Blanchet et al., 2005; Naylor et al., 2009; FAO, 2012 ). The methods to incorporate these considerations in feed formulation systems are addressed in the Goal Programming section below. Depending on their purpose and access to technology, feed formulators can use different feed formulations readily available on the internet and in textbooks, or apply intricate, but more comprehensive, approaches such as nonlinear programs. Methods to formulate feeds increasingly require the use of sophisticated mathematical solutions to incorporate ever-growing knowledge in nutrition, encompass diversification of production goals, and manage risk as well as uncertainty relative to access to safe raw materials and commodity price volatility. The following sections describe the most common formulation methods used by fish feed stakeholders and present alternatives. Feed Formulation Software For Poultry Full Chapter URLView chapter Purchase book Read full chapter URL: Spray cooling and spray chilling for food ingredient and nutraceutical encapsulation J.D. Oxley, in Encapsulation Technologies and Delivery Systems for Food Ingredients and Nutraceuticals, 2012 5.3.4 Feed formulation The feed formulation is the final mixture supplied to the atomization system. This mixture must be homogeneous and stable on a time frame suitable for the production of a consistent microsphere product. Surfactants or viscosity modifiers may be necessary to create stable suspensions of solid active ingredient or emulsions of liquid active ingredient. Due to the high production rates of most spray chilling processes, the time for a suspension or emulsion to remain stable may be short, often requiring stability for a few minutes. Furthermore, feed kettles may be agitated to aid with the creation of a uniform feed mixture. In some cases, inline mixing is used just prior to the atomization system to further reduce the contact time of the active ingredient and heated matrix material. When using gelling formulation, bulking agents may be used to reduce water content. For example, starches or other highly water soluble materials may be added in high concentrations with minimal impact on viscosity. View chapter Purchase book Read full chapter URL: Development of low cost and eco-friendly feed for various candidate species for the sustainability of commercial aquaculture and reduction of aquatic pollution Kartik Baruah. Asim Kumar Pal, in Developing New Functional Food and Nutraceutical Products, 2017 24.5.5 Impact on formulation of low-cost feed Low-cost feed formulation involves feed production at the most cost-effective level in terms of resource, time, energy, and money by minimizing input while maximizing output. For many years, fish nutritionists had looked for ways to utilize cheaper and readily available plant protein sources.
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